Sir Clements Robert Markham KCB FRS (20 July 1830 – 30 January 1916) was a British geographer, explorer and writer. He was secretary of the Royal Geographical Society (RGS) between 1863 and 1888, and later served as the Society's president for a further 12 years. In the latter capacity he was mainly responsible for organising the National Antarctic Expedition of 1901–04, and for launching the polar career of Robert Falcon Scott. Markham began his career as a Royal Naval cadet and midshipman, during which time he went to the Arctic with HMS Assistance in one of the many searches for the lost expedition of Sir John Franklin. Later, Markham served as a geographer to the India Office, and was responsible for the collection of cinchona plants from their native Peruvian forests, and their transplantation in India. By this means the Indian government acquired a home source from which quinine could be extracted. Markham also served as geographer to Sir Robert Napier's Abyssinian expeditionary force, and was present in 1868 at the fall of Magdala. The main achievement of Markham's RGS presidency was the revival at the end of the 19th century of British interest in Antarctic exploration, after a 50-year interval. He had strong and determined ideas about how the National Antarctic Expedition should be organised, and fought hard to ensure that it was run primarily as a naval enterprise, under Captain Scott's command. To do this he overcame hostility and opposition from much of the scientific community. In the years following the expedition he continued to champion Scott's career, to the extent of disregarding or disparaging the achievements of other contemporary explorers. All his life Markham was a constant traveller and a prolific writer, his works including histories, travel accounts and biographies. He authored many papers and reports for the RGS, and did much editing and translation work for the Hakluyt Society, of which he also became president. He received public and academic honours, and was recognised as a major influence on the discipline of geography, although it was acknowledged that much of his work was based on enthusiasm rather than scholarship. Among the geographical features bearing his name is Antarctica's Mount Markham, named for him by Scott in 1902. Markham was born on 20 July 1830 at Stillingfleet, Yorkshire, the second son of The Reverend David Markham who was vicar of Stillingfleet. The family were descendents of William Markham, a former archbishop of York and royal tutor; this court connection led to David Markham's appointment, in 1827, as an honorary canon of Windsor. Markham's mother Caroline, née Milner, was the daughter of Sir William Milner, Baronet, of Nun Appleton Hall, Yorkshire.[1] In 1838 David Markham was appointed rector of Great Horkesley, near Colchester, Essex.[2] A year later Markham began his schooling, first at Cheam and later at Westminster School. He was reportedly an apt pupil, particularly interested in geology and astronomy, and from a early age a prolific writer, an activity which filled much of his spare time.[2] At Westminster, which he found "a wonderful and delightful place", he developed a particular interest in boating, often acting as coxswain in races on the River Thames.[3] In May 1844 Markham was introduced by his aunt, the Countess of Mansfield, to Rear-Admiral Sir George Seymour, a Lord of the Admiralty. The boy made a favourable impression on the admiral, and the meeting led to the offer of a cadetship in the Royal Navy. Accordingly, on 28 June 1844 Markham travelled to Portsmouth and joined Seymour's flagship HMS Collingwood a few days later. Collingwood was being fitted out for an extended voyage to the Pacific Ocean where Seymour was to assume command of the Pacific station.[4] This voyage lasted for almost four years. Markham's social connections evidently assured him of a relatively comfortable time; it is reported that he was frequently invited to dine with the admiral, whose wife and daughters were aboard.[5] The ship reached the Chilean port of Valparaíso, the headquarters of the Pacific station, on 15 December after a cruise that incorporated visits to Rio de Janeiro and the Falkland Islands, and a stormy passage in the Southern Ocean.[5] After a few weeks' respite Collingwood sailed again, this time for Callao, the main port on the Peruvian coast, giving Markham his first experience of a country that would figure prominently in his later career.[6] During the next two years Collingwood cruised in the Pacific, visiting the Sandwich Islands (Hawaii), Mexico, and Tahiti, where Markham attempted to assist the nationalist rebels against their French governor.[7] He experienced his first taste of naval discipline when he was punished for impertinence to a naval instructor; he was made to stand on deck from eight in the morning until sunset.[8] On 25 June 1846 Markham passed the examination for midshipman, being placed third in a group of ten. The long periods spent in Chilean and Peruvian ports had also enabled him to learn Spanish.[1] Towards the end of the voyage Markham's aspirations evidently changed from those of a conventional naval career. He now desired above all to be an explorer and a geographer, carrying these thoughts with him on the voyage home. On arrival in Portsmouth in July 1848 he informed his father of his wish to leave the navy, but was persuaded by him to stay.[9] After a brief period of service in the Mediterranean Markham experienced months of inactivity while based at Spithead and the Cove of Cork, which further diminished his interest in the service.[10] However, early in 1850 he learned that a squadron of four ships was being assembled to undertake a new search for the lost Arctic expedition of Sir John Franklin.[11] Markham used his family's influence to secure a place in this venture, and on 1 April 1850 was informed of his appointment to HMS Assistance, one of the squadron's two principal vessels.[12] Sir John Franklin had left England in May 1845 with two ships, HMS Erebus and HMS Terror, in search of the Northwest Passage. The expedition was last seen on 29 July by whalers in the northern waters of Baffin Bay, moored to an ice floe and waiting for the chance to continue westward.[13] The hunt for the missing ships began two years later. The relief squadron which Markham joined was commanded by Captain Horatio Austin in HMS Resolute. Markham's ship Assistance was captained by Erasmus Ommanney.[14] Markham, as the youngest member of the expedition and its only midshipman, had a limited role, but carefully noted every detail of expedition life in his journal. The ships sailed on 4 May 1850.[15] After rounding the southernmost point of Greenland on 28 May, the squadron proceeded northwards until stopped by ice in Melville Bay on 25 June.[16] They were held here until 18 August, when they were finally able to proceed west into Lancaster Sound, the known route taken by Franklin. Here the ships dispersed to search different areas for signs of the vanished expedition. On 23 August Ommanney sighted a cairn, and discovered packing materials nearby which bore the name of "Goldner", Franklin's canned meat supplier. Together with other odds and ends of abandoned equipment, these fragments were the first traces of Franklin that anyone had found.[16] A few days later, on Beechey Island, the party came across three graves, which proved to be those of members of Franklin's crew who had died between January and April 1846.[16] Searches continued until the ships were laid up for the long Arctic winter. The chief work during the ensuing months was detailed preparation for the spring sledging season. There were lectures and classes for the crew, and various theatrical diversions in which Markham was able to display his "great histrionic talent".[17] He did much reading, mainly Arctic history and classical literature, and thought about a possible return visit to Peru, a country which had captivated him during the Collingwood voyage.[17] When spring returned, a series of sledging expeditions was launched to search for further signs of the missing crews. Markham played a full part in these activities,[18] which produced no further evidence of Franklin, but led to the mapping of hundreds of miles of previously uncharted coast.[19] The expedition returned to England in early October 1851.[20] Immediately on his return to England Markham informed his father of his determination to leave the navy. One of the main reasons for his disaffection appears to have been the severity of the corporal punishment that was constantly administered for what in his view were trivial offences. He had been in trouble during his Collingwood service for attempting to prevent the flogging of a crewman.[8] He had also become disenchanted by the idleness that had occupied long periods of his service. With some regret the elder Markham consented to his son's request, and after taking and passing the gunnery part of the examination for the rank of lieutenant, Markham resigned the service at the end of 1851.[21] In the summer of 1852, freed from his naval obligations, Markham made plans for an extended visit to Peru. Supported by a gift from his father of £500 (more than £40,000 at 2008 values)[22] to cover expenses, Markham sailed from Liverpool on 20 August.[21] Markham travelled by a roundabout route, proceeding first to Halifax, Nova Scotia, then overland to Boston and New York, before taking a steamer to Panama. After crossing the isthmus he sailed for Callao, finally arriving there on 16 October. He set out for the Peruvian interior on 7 December 1852, heading across the Andes towards his goal, the ancient Inca city of Cuzco.[23] On the way, Markham paused for nearly a month in the town of Ayacucho, to study the local culture and increase his knowledge of the Quechua. He then travelled on towards Cuzco, and after crossing a swinging bridge suspended 300 feet (91 m) above the raging Apurímac River, he and his party passed through fertile valleys which brought them finally to the city of Cuzco, on 20 March 1853.[24] Markham remained in the city for several weeks, researching Inca history, describing in his journal the many buildings and ruins that he visited. During the course of an excursion to nearby towns and ruins he reached the area of San Miguel, where he first learned of the properties of the cinchona plant, a source of quinine, cultivated in that vicinity.[25] He finally left Cuzco on 18 May, accompanied by a party of six who, like him, were returning to Lima. Their journey took them southwards, descending the mountains to the city of Arequipa which would later be described as "an outstanding example of a colonial settlement" with its mixture of native and European architecture.[26] The city is overlooked by the conical volcano Mount Misti, which Markham likened to Mount Fuji in Japan. On 23 June the party reached Lima, where Markham learned of the death of his father. He departed immediately for England, where he arrived on 17 September.[27]