Walter Whitman (May 31, 1819 – March 26, 1892) was an American poet, essayist, journalist, and humanist. He was a part of the transition between Transcendentalism and realism, incorporating both views in his works. Whitman is among the most influential poets in the American canon, often called the father of free verse.[1] His work was very controversial in its time, particularly his poetry collection Leaves of Grass, which was described as obscene for its overt sexuality. Born on Long Island, Whitman worked as a journalist, a teacher, a government clerk, and a volunteer nurse during the American Civil War in addition to publishing his poetry. Early in his career, he also produced a temperance novel, Franklin Evans (1842). Whitman's major work, Leaves of Grass, was first published in 1855 with his own money. The work was an attempt at reaching out to the common person with an American epic. He continued expanding and revising it until his death in 1892. After a stroke towards the end of his life, he moved to Camden, New Jersey where his health further declined. He died at age 72 and his funeral became a public spectacle.[2][3] Whitman's sexuality is often discussed alongside his poetry. Though biographers continue to debate his sexuality, he is usually described as either homosexual or bisexual in his feelings and attractions.[4] However, there is disagreement among biographers as to whether Whitman had actual sexual experiences with men.[5] Whitman was concerned with politics throughout his life. He supported the Wilmot Proviso and opposed the extension of slavery generally. His poetry presented an egalitarian view of the races, and at one point he called for the abolition of slavery, but later he saw the abolitionist movement as a threat to democracy.[6] Walter Whitman was born on May 31, 1819, in West Hills, Town of Huntington, Long Island, to parents with interest in Quaker thought, Walter and Louisa Van Velsor Whitman. He was the second of nine children[7] and was immediately nicknamed "Walt" to distinguish him from his father.[8] Walter Whitman Sr. named three of his seven sons after American leaders: Andrew Jackson, George Washington, and Thomas Jefferson. The oldest was named Jesse and another boy died unnamed at the age of six months. The couple's sixth son, the youngest, was named Edward.[8] At age four, Whitman moved with his family from West Hills to Brooklyn, living in a series of homes in part due to bad investments.[9] Whitman looked back on his childhood as generally restless and unhappy due to his family's difficult economic status.[10] One happy moment that he later recalled was when he was lifted in the air and kissed on the cheek by the Marquis de Lafayette during a celebration in Brooklyn on July 4, 1825.[11] At age eleven Whitman concluded formal schooling.[12] He then sought employment for further income for his family; he was an office boy for two lawyers and later was an apprentice and printer's devil for the weekly Long Island newspaper the Patriot, edited by Samuel E. Clements.[13] There, Whitman learned about the printing press and typesetting.[14] He may have written "sentimental bits" of filler material for occasional issues.[15] Clements aroused controversy when he and two friends attempted to dig up the corpse of Elias Hicks to create a plaster mold of his head.[16] Clements left the Patriot shortly after, possibly as a result of the controversy.[17] The following summer Whitman worked for another printer, Erastus Worthington, in Brooklyn.[18] His family moved back to West Hills in the spring, but Whitman remained and took a job at the shop of Alden Spooner, editor of the leading Whig weekly newspaper the Long-Island Star.[18] While at the Star, Whitman became a regular patron of the local library, joined a town debating society, began attending theater performances,[19] and anonymously published some of his earliest poetry in the New York Mirror.[20] At age 16 in May 1835, Whitman left the Star and Brooklyn.[21] He moved to New York City to work as a compositor[22] though, in later years, Whitman could not remember where.[23] He attempted to find further work but had difficulty in part due to a severe fire in the printing and publishing district[23] and in part due to a general collapse in the economy leading up to the Panic of 1837.[24] In May 1836, he rejoined his family, now living in Hempstead, Long Island.[25] Whitman taught intermittently at various schools until the spring of 1838, though he was not satisfied as a teacher.[26] After his teaching attempts, Whitman went back to Huntington, New York to found his own newspaper, the Long Islander. Whitman served as publisher, editor, pressman, and distributor and even provided home delivery. After ten months, he sold the publication to E. O. Crowell, whose first issue appeared on July 12, 1839.[27] No copies of the Long-Islander published under Whitman survive.[28] By the summer of 1839, he found a job as a typesetter in Jamaica, Queens with the Long Island Democrat, edited by James J. Brenton.[27] He left shortly thereafter, and made another attempt at teaching from the winter of 1840 to the spring of 1841,[29] During this time, he published a series of ten editorials called "Sun-Down Papers—From the Desk of a Schoolmaster" in three newspapers between the winter of 1840 and July 1841. In these essays, he adopted a constructed persona, a technique he would employ throughout his career.[30] Whitman moved to New York City in May, initially working a low-level job at the New World, working under Park Benjamin, Sr. and Rufus Wilmot Griswold.[31] He continued working for short periods of time for various newspapers; in 1842 he was editor of the Aurora and from 1846 to 1848 he was editor of the Brooklyn Eagle.[32] He also contributed freelance fiction and poetry throughout the 1840s.[33] Whitman lost his position at the Brooklyn Eagle in 1848 after siding with the free-soil "Barnburner" wing of the Democratic party against the newspaper's owner, Isaac Van Anden, who belonged to the conservative, or "Hunker", wing of the party.[34] Whitman was a delegate to the 1848 founding convention of the Free Soil Party. Whitman claimed that after years of competing for "the usual rewards", he determined to become a poet.[35] He first experimented with a variety of popular literary genres which appealed to the cultural tastes of the period.[36] As early as 1850, he began writing what would become Leaves of Grass,[37] a collection of poetry which he would continue editing and revising until his death.[38] Whitman intended to write a distinctly American epic[39] and used free verse with a cadence based on the Bible.[40] At the end of June 1855, Whitman surprised his brothers with the already-printed first edition of Leaves of Grass. George "didn't think it worth reading".[41] Whitman paid for the publication of the first edition of Leaves of Grass himself[41] and had it printed at a local print shop during their breaks from commercial jobs.[42] A total of 795 copies were printed.[43] No name is given as author; instead, facing the title page was an engraved portrait done by Samuel Hollyer[44], but in the body of the text he calls himself "Walt Whitman, an American, one of the roughs, a kosmos, disorderly, fleshly, and sensual, no sentimentalist, no stander above men or women or apart from them, no more modest than immodest"[45]. The book received its strongest praise from Ralph Waldo Emerson, who wrote a flattering five page letter to Whitman and spoke highly of the book to friends.[46] The first edition of Leaves of Grass was widely distributed and stirred up significant interest,[47] in part due to Emerson's approval,[48] but was occasionally criticized for the seemingly "obscene" nature of the poetry.[49] Geologist John Peter Lesley wrote to Emerson, calling the book "trashy, profane & obscene" and the author "a pretentious ass".[50] On July 11, 1855, a few days after Leaves of Grass was published, Whitman's father died at the age of 65.[51] In the months following the first edition of Leaves of Grass, critical responses began focusing more on the potentially offensive sexual themes. Though the second edition was already printed and bound, the publisher almost did not release it.[52] In the end, the edition went to retail, with 20 additional poems,[53] in August 1856.[54] Leaves of Grass was revised and re-released in 1860[55] again in 1867, and several more times throughout the remainder of Whitman's life. Several well-known writers admired the work enough to visit Whitman, including Bronson Alcott and Henry David Thoreau.[56] During the first publications of Leaves of Grass, Whitman had financial difficulties and was forced to work as a journalist again, specifically with Brooklyn's Daily Times starting in May 1857.[57] As an editor, he oversaw the paper's contents, contributed book reviews, and wrote editorials.[58] He left the job in 1859, though it is unclear if he was fired or chose to leave.[59] Whitman, who typically kept detailed notebooks and journals, left very little information about himself in the late 1850s.[60] As the American Civil War was beginning, Whitman published his poem "Beat! Beat! Drums!" as a patriotic rally call for the North.[61] Whitman's brother George had joined the Union army and began sending Whitman several vividly detailed letters of the battle front.[62] On December 16, 1862, a listing of fallen and wounded soldiers in the New York Tribune included "First Lieutenant G. W. Whitmore", which Whitman worried was a reference to his brother George.[63] He made his way south immediately to find him, though his wallet was stolen on the way.[64] "Walking all day and night, unable to ride, trying to get information, trying to get access to big people", Whitman later wrote,[65] he eventually found George alive, with only a superficial wound on his cheek.[63] Whitman, profoundly affected by seeing the wounded soldiers and the heaps of their amputated limbs, left for Washington on December 28, 1862 with the intention of never returning to New York.[64] In Washington, D.C., Whitman's friend Charley Eldridge helped him obtain part-time work in the army paymaster's office, leaving time for Whitman to volunteer as a nurse in the army hospitals.[66] He would write of this experience in "The Great Army of the Sick", published in a New York newspaper in 1863[67] and, 12 years later, in a book called Memoranda During the War.[68] He then contacted Emerson, this time to ask for help in obtaining a government post.[64] Another friend, John Trowbridge, passed on a letter of recommendation from Emerson to Salmon P. Chase, Secretary of the Treasury, hoping he would grant Whitman a position in that department. Chase, however, did not want to hire the author of such a disreputable book as Leaves of Grass.[69]